History of Storage

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) was one of the first open storage standards. It was developed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for attaching peripherals, such as storage, to computers. Initially, it wasn’t very flexible and could connect only 15 devices over a flat copper ribbon cable of 20 meters.

So, the fiber channel replaced the flat cable with a fiber cable. Now, we have a fiber infrastructure that overcomes the 20-meter restriction. However, it still uses the same SCSI protocol over fiber, commonly known as SCSI. Fibre Channel is used to transport SCSI information units over optical fiber.

Storage devices

We then started to put disks into enclosures, known as storage arrays. Storage arrays increase resilience and availability by eliminating single failure points (SPOFs). Applications would not write or own a physical disk but instead write to what is known as a LUN (Logical disk). A LUN is a unit that logically supports read/write operations. LUNs allow multi-access support by permitting numerous hosts to access the same storage array.

Eventually, vendors designed storage area networks (SAN). SAN networks provide access to block-level data storage. Block-level storage is used for SAN access, while file-level storage is used for network-attached storage (NAS) access. They no longer used SCSI and invented their routing protocol, FSPF routing.

Brocade invented FSPF, which is conceptually similar to OSPF for IP networks. They also implemented VSAN, similar to VLANs on Layer 2 networks, but used it for storage. VSAN is a collection of ports that represent a virtual fabric.

Remote disk access

Traditionally, servers would have a Host Bus Adapter (HBA) and run FC/ FCoE/iSCSI protocols to communicate with the remote storage array. Another method is sending individual file system calls to a remote file system, a NAS. The protocols used for this are CIFS and NFS. Microsoft developed CIFS, an open variation of the Server Message Block Protocol (SMB). NFS, developed by Sun Microsystems, runs over TCP and gives you access to shared files instead of SCSI, providing you access to remote disks.

The speed of file access depends on your application. Slow performances are generally not related to the protocols NFS or CIF. If your application is well-written and can read vast chunks of data, it will be refined over NFS. On the other hand, if your application is poorly written, it is best to use iSCSI. Then, the host will do most of the buffering.

Why not use LAN instead of a fiber channel? 

Initially, there was a wide variety of different operating systems. Most of these operating systems already used SCSI and the device drivers that implemented connectivity to load SCSI host adapters. The storage industry decided to offer the same SCSI protocol to the same device driver but over a fiber channel physical infrastructure.

Everything above the fiber channel was not changed. This allowed backward compatibility with old adapters, so they continued using the old SCSI protocols.

Fiber channels have their own set of requirements and terminology. The host still thinks they write to a disk 20m away, requiring tight timings. It must have low latency and a minimum distance of around 100 km. Nothing can be lost, so it must be lossless, and packets are critical.

FC requires lossless networks, which usually result in a costly dedicated network. With this approach, you have one network for LAN and one for storage.

Fiber channels over Ethernet eliminated fiber-only networks by offering I/O consultations between servers and switches. They took the entire fiber frame and put it into an Ethernet frame. FCoE requires lossless Ethernet (DCB) between the servers and the first switch, i.e., VN and VF ports. It is mainly used to reduce the amount of cabling between servers and switches. It is an access-tier solution. On the Ethernet side, we must have lossless Ethernet. There are several standards IEEE formed for this.

The first limited the sending device by issuing a PAUSE frame, known as 802.3x, which stops the server from sending data. As a result of the PAUSE frame, the server stops ALL transmissions. But we need a way to stop only the lossless part of the traffic, i.e., the FCoE traffic. This is 802.1qbb and allows you to stop a single class of services. There is also QCN (Congestion notification 802.1Qua), an end-to-end mechanism telling the sending device to slow down. All the servers, switches, and storage arrays negotiate the class parameters, deciding what will be lossless.

Data center failure: Storage replication for disaster recovery

The primary reasons for storage replication are disaster recovery and fulfilling service level agreements (SLA). How accurate will your data be when data center services fail from one DC to another? The level of data consistency depends on the solution in place and how you replicate your data. There are two types of storage replication: synchronous and asynchronous.

Synchronous has several steps.

The host writes to the disk, and the disk writes to the other disk in the remote location. Only when the other disk says, OK will an OK be returned to the host. Synchronous replication guarantees that the data is ideally in sync. However, it requires tight timeouts, severely limiting the distance between the two data centers. You need to implement asynchronous replication if there are long distances between data centers.

The host writes to the local disk, and the local disk immediately says OK without writing or receiving notifications from the remote disk. The local disk sends a written request to the remote disk in the background. If you use traditional LUN-based replication between two data centers, most solutions make one of these disks read-only and the other read-write.

Problems with latency occur when a VM is spawned in the data center with only the read-only copy, resulting in replication back to the writable copy. One major influential design factor is how much bandwidth storage replication consumes between data centers.

Data center failure: Distributed file systems

A better storage architecture is to use a system with distributed file systems—both ends are writable. Replication is not done at the disk level but at a file level. Your replication type is down to the recovery point objective (RPO), which is the terminology used for business continuity objectives. You must use synchronous replication if you require an RPO of zero. As discussed, it requires several steps before it is acknowledged to the application.

Synchronous also has distance and latency restrictions, which vary depending on the chosen storage solution. For example, VMware VSAN supports RTT of 5 ms. It is a distributed file system, so the replication is not done on a traditional LUN level but at a file level. It employs synchronous replication between data centers, adding RTT to every write. 

Most storage solutions eventually become consistent. You write to a file, the file locks, and the file is copied to the other end. This offers much better performance, but obviously, RPO is non-zero.