zero trust network design

Zero Trust Network Design

Zero Trust Network Design

In today's interconnected world, where data breaches and cyber threats have become commonplace, traditional perimeter defenses are no longer enough to protect sensitive information. Enter Zero Trust Network Design is a security approach that prioritizes data protection by assuming that every user and device, inside or outside the network, is a potential threat. In this blog post, we will explore the Zero Trust Network Design concept, its principles, and its benefits in securing the modern digital landscape.

Zero trust network design is a security concept that focuses on reducing the attack surface of an organization’s network. It is based on the assumption that users and systems inside a network are untrusted, and therefore, all traffic is considered untrusted and must be verified before access is granted. This contrasts traditional networks, which often rely on perimeter-based security to protect against external threats.

Key Points:

-Identity and Access Management (IAM): IAM plays a vital role in Zero Trust by ensuring that only authenticated and authorized users gain access to specific resources. Multi-factor authentication (MFA) and strong password policies are integral to this component.

-Network Segmentation: Zero Trust advocates for segmenting the network into smaller, more manageable zones. This helps contain potential breaches and restricts lateral movement within the network.

-Continuous Monitoring and Analytics: Real-time monitoring and analysis of network traffic, user behavior, and system logs are essential for detecting any anomalies or potential security breaches.

-Enhanced Security: By adopting a Zero Trust approach, organizations significantly reduce the risk of unauthorized access and lateral movement within their networks, making it harder for cyber attackers to exploit vulnerabilities.

-Improved Compliance: Zero Trust aligns with various regulatory and compliance requirements, providing organizations with a structured framework to ensure data protection and privacy.

-Greater Flexibility: Zero Trust allows organizations to embrace modern workplace practices, such as remote work and BYOD (Bring Your Own Device), without compromising security. Users can securely access resources from anywhere, anytime.

Implementing Zero Trust requires a well-defined strategy and careful planning. Here are some key steps to consider:

1. Assess Current Security Infrastructure: Conduct a thorough assessment of existing security measures, identify vulnerabilities, and evaluate the readiness for Zero Trust implementation.

2. Define Trust Boundaries: Determine the trust boundaries within the network and establish access policies accordingly. Consider factors like user roles, device types, and resource sensitivity.

3. Choose the Right Technologies: Select security solutions and tools that align with your organization's needs and objectives. These may include next-generation firewalls, secure web gateways, and identity management systems.

Highlights: Zero Trust Network Design

**Understanding Zero Trust**

Zero trust is a security concept that challenges the traditional perimeter-based network security model. It operates on the principle of never trusting any user or device, regardless of their location or network connection. Instead, it continuously verifies and authenticates every user and device attempting to access network resources.

Key Points:

A – Certain principles must be followed to implement a zero-trust network design successfully. One crucial principle is the principle of least privilege, where users and devices are granted only the necessary access to perform their tasks. Another principle is continuously monitoring and assessing all network traffic, ensuring that any anomalies or suspicious activities are detected and responded to promptly.

B – Implementing a zero-trust network design requires careful planning and consideration. It involves a combination of technological solutions, such as multi-factor authentication, network segmentation, encryption, and granular access controls. Additionally, organizations must establish comprehensive policies and procedures to govern user access, device management, and incident response.

C – Zero trust network design offers several benefits to organizations. Firstly, it enhances overall security posture by minimizing the attack surface and preventing lateral movement within the network. Secondly, it provides granular control over network resources, ensuring that only authorized users and devices can access sensitive data. Lastly, it simplifies compliance efforts by enforcing strict access controls and maintaining detailed audit logs.

“Never Trust, Always Verify”

D – The core concept of zero-trust network design and segmentation is never to trust, always verify. This means that all traffic, regardless of its origin, must be verified before access is granted. This is achieved through layered security controls, including authentication, authorization, encryption, and monitoring.

E – Authentication verifies users’ and devices’ identities before allowing access to resources. Authorization determines what resources a user or device is allowed to access. Encryption protects data in transit and at rest. Monitoring detects threats and suspicious activity.

**Zero Trust Network Segmentation**

Zero-trust network design, including segmentation, is becoming increasingly popular as organizations move away from perimeter-based security. By verifying all traffic rather than relying on perimeter-based security, organizations can reduce their attack surface and improve their overall security posture. Segmentation can work at different layers of the OSI Model.

**Scanning Networks: Securing Networks**

Endpoint security refers to the protection of devices (endpoints) that have access to a network. These devices, which include laptops, smartphones, and servers, are often targeted by cybercriminals seeking unauthorized access, data breaches, or system disruptions. Businesses and individuals can fortify their digital realms against threats by implementing robust endpoint security measures.

Address Resolution Protocol (APR):

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) plays a vital role in establishing communication between devices within a network. It maps an IP address to a physical (MAC) address, allowing data transmission between devices. However, cyber attackers can exploit ARP to launch attacks, such as ARP spoofing, compromising network security. Understanding ARP and implementing countermeasures is crucial for adequate endpoint security.

The Role of Routing:

Routing is the process of forwarding network traffic between different networks. Secure routing protocols and practices are essential to prevent unauthorized access and ensure data integrity. By implementing secure routing mechanisms, organizations can establish trusted paths for data transmission, reducing the risk of data breaches and unauthorized network access.

Note: Netstat: Netstat, a command-line tool, provides valuable insights into network connections, active ports, and listening services. By utilizing Netstat, network administrators can identify suspicious connections, potential malware infections, or unauthorized access attempts. Regularly monitoring and analyzing Netstat outputs can aid in maintaining a secure network environment.

Zero Trust Connectivity: NCC

### What is Google’s Network Connectivity Center?

Google’s Network Connectivity Center is a centralized platform that simplifies the management of hybrid and multi-cloud networks. It provides organizations with a unified view of their network, enabling them to connect, secure, and manage their infrastructure with ease. By leveraging Google’s global network, NCC ensures high availability, low latency, and optimized performance.

#### Unified Network Management

NCC offers a single pane of glass for managing all network connections, whether they are on-premises, in the cloud, or across different cloud providers. This unified approach reduces complexity and streamlines operations, making it easier for IT teams to maintain a cohesive network architecture.

#### Advanced Security Measures

Security is a core component of NCC. It integrates seamlessly with Google’s security services, providing advanced threat protection, encryption, and compliance monitoring. This ensures that data remains secure as it traverses the network, adhering to the principles of Zero Trust.

#### Scalability and Flexibility

One of the standout features of NCC is its scalability. Organizations can easily scale their network infrastructure to accommodate growth and changing business needs. Whether expanding to new regions or integrating additional cloud services, NCC offers the flexibility to adapt without compromising performance or security.

Zero Trust Connectivity: Private Service Connect

### What is Private Service Connect?

Private Service Connect is a feature offered by Google Cloud that allows users to securely connect services across different VPC networks. It leverages private IPs to ensure that data does not traverse the public internet, reducing the risk of exposure to potential threats. This service is particularly useful for organizations looking to maintain a high level of security while ensuring seamless connectivity between their cloud-based services.

### The Role of Zero Trust in Private Service Connect

Zero trust is a security framework that operates on the principle of “never trust, always verify.” It assumes that threats can come from both inside and outside the network. Private Service Connect embodies this principle by ensuring that services are only accessible to authorized users and devices. By integrating zero trust into its framework, Private Service Connect provides an additional layer of security, ensuring that data and services remain protected.

private service connect

Network Policies: GKE 

**Understanding the Basics of Network Policy**

Network policies in GKE are akin to firewall rules that control the traffic flow between pods, effectively determining which pods can communicate with each other. These policies are essential for isolating applications, segmenting traffic, and protecting sensitive data. In essence, network policies provide a framework for defining how groups of pods can interact, allowing for fine-grained control over network communication.

**Implementing Zero Trust Network Design with GKE**

Zero trust network design is a security model that operates on the principle of “never trust, always verify.” In the context of GKE, this means that no pod should be able to communicate with another pod without explicit permission. Implementing zero trust in GKE involves carefully crafting network policies to ensure that only the necessary communication paths are open. This approach minimizes the risk of unauthorized access and lateral movement within the cluster, enhancing the overall security posture.

**Best Practices for Configuring Network Policies**

When configuring network policies in GKE, there are several best practices to consider. First, start by defining default deny policies to block all traffic by default, then incrementally add specific allow policies as required. It’s also important to regularly review and update these policies to reflect changes in the application architecture. Additionally, leveraging tools like Kubernetes Network Policy API can simplify the management and enforcement of these policies.

Kubernetes network policy

Zero Trust Google Cloud IAM

## Understanding the Basics

At its core, Google Cloud IAM allows you to define roles and permissions that determine what actions users can take with your resources. It’s a comprehensive tool that helps you manage access to Google Cloud services with precision. By assigning roles based on the principle of least privilege, you ensure that users have only the permissions they need to perform their jobs, minimizing potential security risks.

## Zero Trust Network Design

Incorporating a zero trust network design with Google Cloud IAM is an effective way to bolster security. Unlike traditional security models that rely heavily on perimeter defenses, zero trust assumes that threats could be both outside and inside the network. This approach requires strict identity verification for every person and device trying to access resources. By integrating zero trust principles, organizations can enhance their security posture and reduce the risk of unauthorized access.

## Advanced Features for Enhanced Security

Google Cloud IAM offers several advanced features that complement a zero trust strategy. These include conditional access based on attributes such as device security status and location, as well as support for multi-factor authentication. Additionally, IAM’s audit logs provide comprehensive visibility into who accessed what, when, and how, allowing for thorough monitoring and quick incident response.

Google Cloud IAM

Detecting Authentication Failures in Logs

Understanding Log Analysis

Log analysis is the process of examining log data to extract meaningful insights and identify potential security events. Logs act as a digital trail, capturing valuable information about system activities, user actions, and network traffic. By carefully analyzing logs, security teams can detect anomalies, track user behavior, and uncover potential threats lurking in the shadows.

Syslog is a standard protocol for message logging. It allows various devices and applications to send log messages to a central logging server. Syslog provides a standardized format, making aggregating and analyzing logs from different sources easier. Syslog messages contain essential details such as timestamps, log levels, and source IP addresses, which are crucial for detecting security events.

Auth.log, or the authentication log, is a specific log file that records authentication-related events on Unix-based systems. It includes valuable information about user logins, failed login attempts, and other authentication activities. Analyzing auth.log can help identify brute-force attacks, unauthorized access attempts, and potential security breaches targeting user accounts.

Understanding SELinux

SELinux is a security framework built into the Linux kernel that provides Mandatory Access Control (MAC) policies. Unlike traditional discretionary access control (DAC), which relies on user permissions, SELinux focuses on controlling access based on the security context of processes and resources. This means that even if an attacker gains unauthorized access to a system, SELinux can prevent them from compromising the entire system.

Implementing SELinux

To implement zero trust endpoint security with SELinux, organizations should start by defining security policies that align with their specific needs. These policies should enforce strict access controls, limit privileges, and define fine-grained permissions for processes and resources. By doing so, organizations can ensure that even if an endpoint is compromised, the attacker’s ability to move laterally within the network is significantly restricted.

Zero Trust Networking with Cloud Service Mesh

## What is a Cloud Service Mesh?

At its core, a Cloud Service Mesh is a configurable infrastructure layer for microservices application, which makes communication between service instances flexible, reliable, and observable. It decouples network and security policies from the application code, allowing developers to focus on their core functionality without worrying about the intricacies of service-to-service communication. Essentially, it acts as a dedicated layer for managing service-to-service communications, offering features like load balancing, service discovery, retries, and circuit breaking.

## The Benefits of Implementing a Cloud Service Mesh

Implementing a Cloud Service Mesh offers numerous benefits that streamline operations and enhance security:

1. **Enhanced Observability**: It provides deep insights into service behavior with monitoring and tracing capabilities, helping to quickly identify and resolve issues.

2. **Improved Security**: By enforcing security policies like mutual TLS and fine-grained access control, it ensures secure service-to-service communication.

3. **Resilience and Reliability**: Features like automatic retries, circuit breaking, and load balancing ensure that services remain resilient and available, even in the face of failures.

4. **Operational Simplicity**: By offloading the complexities of service management to the mesh, developers can focus on business logic, speeding up development cycles.

### Cloud Service Mesh and Zero Trust Networks

The concept of Zero Trust Networks (ZTN) revolves around the principle of “never trust, always verify.” In a ZTN, every request, whether it originates inside or outside the network, must be authenticated and authorized. Cloud Service Meshes align perfectly with ZTN principles by providing robust security features:

– **Mutual TLS**: Ensures that all communication between services is encrypted and authenticated.

– **Fine-Grained Policy Control**: Allows administrators to define and enforce policies at a granular level, ensuring that only authorized services can communicate.

Google has been at the forefront of integrating Cloud Service Mesh technology with Zero Trust principles. Their Istio service mesh, for example, offers robust security features that align with Zero Trust guidelines, making it a preferred choice for organizations looking to enhance their security posture.

### Google’s Contribution to Cloud Service Mesh

Google has played a significant role in advancing Cloud Service Mesh technology. Their open-source service mesh, Istio, has become a cornerstone in the industry. Istio simplifies service management by providing a uniform way to secure, connect, and monitor microservices. It integrates seamlessly with Kubernetes, making it an ideal choice for cloud-native applications. Google’s emphasis on security, observability, and operational efficiency in Istio reflects their commitment to fostering innovation in cloud technologies.

Example Product: Cisco Secure Workload

### What is Cisco Secure Workload?

Cisco Secure Workload is a comprehensive security solution that provides visibility, micro-segmentation, and workload protection for applications across multi-cloud environments. It leverages advanced analytics and machine learning to identify and mitigate threats, ensuring that your workloads remain secure, whether they are on-premises, in the cloud, or in hybrid environments.

#### 1. Enhanced Visibility

One of the standout features of Cisco Secure Workload is its ability to provide unparalleled visibility into your network. It offers real-time insights into application dependencies, communications, and behaviors, allowing you to detect anomalies and potential threats swiftly.

#### 2. Micro-Segmentation

Micro-segmentation is a critical component of modern security strategies. Cisco Secure Workload enables fine-grained segmentation of workloads, reducing the attack surface and preventing lateral movement of threats within your network. This granular approach to segmentation ensures that even if a threat breaches one segment, it cannot easily spread to others.

#### 3. Automated Policy Enforcement

Maintaining consistent security policies across diverse environments can be challenging. Cisco Secure Workload simplifies this process through automated policy enforcement. By defining security policies centrally, you can ensure they are uniformly applied across all workloads, reducing the risk of misconfigurations and human errors.

### How Cisco Secure Workload Works

#### 1. Data Collection

Cisco Secure Workload starts by collecting data from various sources within your network. This includes telemetry data from workloads, network traffic, and existing security tools. This data is then analyzed to create a comprehensive map of your application environment.

#### 2. Behavior Analysis

Using machine learning and advanced analytics, Cisco Secure Workload analyzes the collected data to identify normal and abnormal behaviors. This analysis helps in detecting potential threats and vulnerabilities that traditional security tools might miss.

#### 3. Threat Detection and Response

Once potential threats are identified, Cisco Secure Workload provides actionable insights and automated responses to mitigate these threats. This proactive approach ensures that your workloads remain protected even as new threats emerge.

### Real-World Applications

#### 1. Financial Services

Financial institutions handle sensitive data and are prime targets for cyberattacks. Cisco Secure Workload helps these organizations secure their workloads, ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements and protecting customer data from breaches.

#### 2. Healthcare

In the healthcare sector, patient data security is of utmost importance. Cisco Secure Workload provides healthcare organizations with the tools they need to protect electronic health records (EHRs) and ensure HIPAA compliance.

#### 3. Retail

Retailers face unique challenges with high transaction volumes and diverse IT environments. Cisco Secure Workload helps retailers secure their transactional data, protect customer information, and prevent fraud.

Example Product: Cisco Secure Network Analytics

Cisco Secure Network Analytics offers a plethora of features that make it stand out in the crowded cybersecurity market. Here are some of the core functionalities:

– **Comprehensive Network Visibility**: Cisco SNA provides a complete view of all network traffic, allowing you to see what’s happening across your entire infrastructure. This visibility is crucial for identifying potential threats and understanding normal network behavior.

– **Advanced Threat Detection**: Utilizing machine learning and behavioral analytics, Cisco SNA can detect anomalies that may indicate a security breach. This proactive approach helps in identifying threats before they can cause significant damage.

– **Automated Response and Mitigation**: When a threat is detected, Cisco SNA can automatically respond by triggering predefined actions, such as isolating affected devices or blocking malicious traffic. This automation ensures a swift and efficient response to security incidents.

### Benefits of Implementing Cisco Secure Network Analytics

Implementing Cisco Secure Network Analytics offers numerous benefits to organizations of all sizes. Some of the key advantages include:

– **Reduced Mean Time to Detect (MTTD) and Respond (MTTR)**: With its advanced detection and automated response capabilities, Cisco SNA significantly reduces the time it takes to identify and mitigate threats. This rapid response is crucial for minimizing the impact of security incidents.

– **Enhanced Network Performance**: By providing detailed insights into network traffic, Cisco SNA helps organizations optimize their network performance. This optimization leads to improved efficiency and reduced downtime.

– **Regulatory Compliance**: Many industries are subject to strict regulatory requirements regarding data protection and network security. Cisco SNA helps organizations meet these compliance standards by providing detailed audit trails and reporting capabilities.

### Real-World Applications of Cisco Secure Network Analytics

Cisco Secure Network Analytics is versatile and can be applied across various industries and use cases. Here are a few examples:

– **Financial Services**: Banks and financial institutions can use Cisco SNA to protect sensitive customer information and prevent fraud. The tool’s advanced threat detection capabilities are particularly valuable in identifying and stopping sophisticated cyber-attacks.

– **Healthcare**: In the healthcare sector, protecting patient data is paramount. Cisco SNA helps healthcare providers secure their networks against breaches and ensure compliance with regulations such as HIPAA.

– **Education**: Educational institutions can benefit from Cisco SNA by safeguarding student and faculty data. The tool also helps in maintaining the integrity of online learning platforms and preventing disruptions.

Related: For pre-information, you may find the following helpful:

  1. DNS Security Designs
  2. Zero Trust Access
  3. SD WAN Segmentation

 

Zero Trust Network Design

**Issue 1 – We Connect First and Then Authenticate**

  • Connect first, authenticate second.

TCP/IP is a fundamentally open network protocol facilitating easy connectivity and reliable communications between distributed computing nodes. It has served us well in enabling our hyper-connected world but—for various reasons—doesn’t include security as part of its core capabilities.

  • TCP has a weak security foundation

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) has been around for decades and has a weak security foundation. When it was created, security was out of scope. TCP can detect and retransmit error packets but leave them to their default; communication packets are not encrypted, which poses security risks.

In addition, TCP operates with a Connect First, Authenticate, Second operation model, which is inherently insecure. It leaves the two connecting parties wide open for an attack. When clients want to communicate and access an application, they first set up a connection.

The authentication stage occurs only once the connect stage has been completed. Once the authentication stage has been completed, we can pass the data. 

zero trust network design
Diagram: Zero Trust security. The TCP model of connectivity.

From a security perspective, the most important thing to understand is that this connection occurs purely at a network layer with no identity, authentication, or authorization. The beauty of this model is that it enables anyone with a browser to easily connect to any public web server without requiring any upfront registration or permission. This is a perfect approach for a public web server but a lousy approach for a private application.

Zero Trust Connectivity: Service Networking APIs

**Understanding Zero Trust: A Paradigm Shift in Security**

In the context of service networking APIs, zero trust ensures that only authorized users and devices can interact with the APIs, reducing the risk of unauthorized access and data breaches. Implementing zero trust can significantly enhance the security posture of an organization, safeguarding sensitive data and maintaining user trust.

**Integrating Google Cloud and Zero Trust for Enhanced API Security**

Combining Google Cloud’s robust platform with zero trust principles creates a powerful synergy for securing service networking APIs. Google Cloud’s identity and access management tools, such as Cloud Identity and Access Management (IAM), work seamlessly within a zero trust framework to enforce strict authentication and authorization policies. By leveraging these tools, organizations can create a secure environment where APIs are protected from potential threats, and data is kept confidential and integral.

Service Networking API

**The potential for malicious activity**

With this process of Connect First and Authenticate Second, we are essentially opening up the door of the network and the application without knowing who is on the other side. Unfortunately, with this model, we have no idea who the client is until they have carried out the connect phase, and once they have connected, they are already in the network. Maybe the requesting client is not trustworthy and has bad intentions. If so, once they connect, they can carry out malicious activity and potentially perform data exfiltration. 

What is Network Monitoring?

Network monitoring is observing and analyzing network components and traffic to identify anomalies or performance issues. It uses specialized software and tools that provide real-time insights into network health, bandwidth utilization, device status, etc. By actively monitoring the network infrastructure, businesses can proactively detect and resolve issues before they escalate.

Network monitoring plays a pivotal role in safeguarding sensitive data from external threats. By monitoring network traffic for any suspicious activities or unauthorized access attempts, IT teams can quickly detect and respond to potential security breaches. Additionally, monitoring network devices for vulnerabilities and applying necessary patches and updates ensures a robust defense against cyber threats.

**Understanding Network Scanning**

Network scanning, at its core, involves systematically examining a network to identify its assets, configurations, and potential vulnerabilities. By employing various scanning techniques, security professionals can understand the network’s structure and potential risks.

Different methodologies for conducting network scanning exist, each catering to specific objectives. Passive scanning, for instance, focuses on observing network traffic without actively engaging with devices. On the other hand, active scanning involves sending requests to network devices to gather information about their configurations and potential vulnerabilities.

Numerous powerful tools are available to aid in network scanning endeavors. From widely used tools like Nmap and Wireshark to more specialized ones like Nessus and OpenVAS, the selection of tools depends on the desired scanning approach and the level of detail required. These tools provide many features, including port scanning, vulnerability assessment, and network mapping capabilities.

Additional Information on Network Mapping

Example: Identifying and Mapping Networks

To troubleshoot the network effectively, you can use a range of tools. Some are built into the operating system, while others must be downloaded and run. Depending on your experience, you may choose a top-down or a bottom-up approach.

**Developing a Zero Trust Architecture**

A zero-trust architecture requires endpoints to authenticate and be authorized before obtaining network access to protected servers. Then, real-time encrypted connections are created between requesting systems and application infrastructure. With a zero-trust architecture, we must establish trust between the client and the application before the client can set up the connection. Zero Trust is all about trust – never trust, always verify.

Trust is bidirectional between the client and the Zero Trust architecture (which can take forms ) and the application to the Zero Trust architecture. It’s not a one-time check; it’s a continuous mode of operation. Once sufficient trust has been established, we move into the next stage, authentication. Once authentication has been set, we can connect the user to the application. Zero Trust access events flip the entire security model and make it more robust. 

  • We have gone from connecting first and authenticating second to authenticating first and connecting second.
zero trust model
Diagram: The Zero Trust model of connectivity.

Example of a zero-trust network access

A. Single Pack Authorization ( SPA)

The user cannot see or know where the applications are located. SDP hides the application and creates a “dark” network by using Single Packet Authorization (SPA) for the authorization.

SPAs, also known as Single Packet Authentication, aim to overcome the open and insecure nature of TCP/IP, which follows a “connect then authenticate” model. SPA is a lightweight security protocol that validates a device or user’s identity before permitting network access to the SDP. The purpose of SPA is to allow a service to be darkened via a default-deny firewall.

The systems use a One-Time-Password (OTP) generated by algorithm 14 and embed the current password in the initial network packet sent from the client to the Server. The SDP specification mentions using the SPA packet after establishing a TCP connection. In contrast, the open-source implementation from the creators of SPA15 uses a UDP packet before the TCP connection.

B. Understanding Port Knocking

At its core, port knocking is an access control method that conceals open ports on a server. Instead of leaving ports visibly open and vulnerable to attackers, port knocking requires a sequence of connection attempts to predefined closed ports. Once the correct sequence is detected, the server dynamically opens the desired port and allows access. This covert approach adds an extra layer of protection, making it an intriguing choice for those seeking to fortify their network security.

Implementing port knocking within a zero-trust framework can significantly enhance your network security. By obscuring open ports and allowing access only to authorized users who possess the correct port-knocking sequence, potential attackers face an additional barrier to overcome. This technique effectively reduces the attack surface and minimizes the risk of unauthorized access, making it an invaluable tool for security-conscious individuals and organizations.

**Issue 2 – Fixed perimeter approach to networking and security**

Traditionally, security boundaries were placed at the edge of the enterprise network in a classic “castle wall and moat” approach. However, as technology evolved, remote workers and workloads became more common. As a result, security boundaries necessarily followed and expanded from just the corporate perimeter.

**The traditional world of static domains**

The traditional world of networking started with static domains. Networks were initially designed to create internal segments separated from the external world by a fixed perimeter. The classical network model divided clients and users into trusted and untrusted groups. The internal network was deemed trustworthy, whereas the external was considered hostile.

The perimeter approach to network and security has several zones. We have, for example, the Internet, DMZ, Trusted, and then Privileged. In addition, we have public and private address spaces that separate network access from here. Private addresses were deemed more secure than public ones as they were unreachable online. However, this trust assumption that all private addresses are safe is where our problems started. 

**The fixed perimeter** 

The digital threat landscape is concerning. We are getting hit by external threats to your applications and networks from all over the world. They also come internally within your network, and we have insider threats within a user group and internally as insider threats across user group boundaries. These types of threats need to be addressed one by one.

One issue with the fixed perimeter approach is that it assumes trusted internal and hostile external networks. However, we must assume that the internal network is as hostile as the external one.

Over 80% of threats are from internal malware or malicious employees. The fixed perimeter approach to networking and security is still the foundation for most network and security professionals, even though a lot has changed since the design’s inception. 

Zero Trust & VPC Service Controls

### Role of VPC Service Controls in Zero Trust Network Design

Zero Trust Network Design is rapidly gaining traction as an essential cybersecurity framework. Unlike traditional security models that assume trust within the network, Zero Trust operates on the principle of ‘never trust, always verify.’ This paradigm shift emphasizes the need for more granular controls and continuous verification of user and device identities. VPC Service Controls align perfectly with this approach by restricting access to critical resources and ensuring that only authenticated and authorized entities can interact with the data. This integration fortifies the network’s defenses, minimizes potential attack vectors, and ensures data integrity.

### Implementing VPC Service Controls in Google Cloud

Implementing VPC Service Controls within Google Cloud is a strategic move for organizations aiming to enhance their security posture. The process involves setting up security perimeters around sensitive resources, such as Cloud Storage buckets, BigQuery datasets, and Cloud Bigtable instances. By defining these perimeters, organizations can enforce policies that restrict access based on specific criteria, such as IP addresses, service accounts, or even user-defined attributes. This granular control not only prevents unauthorized access but also ensures compliance with industry regulations and standards.

VPC Security Controls

We get hacked daily!

We are now at a stage where 45% of US companies have experienced a data breach. The 2022 Thales Data Threat Report found that almost half (45%) of US companies suffered a data breach in the past year. However, this could be higher due to the potential for undetected breaches.

We are getting hacked daily, and major networks with skilled staff are crashing. Unfortunately, the perimeter approach to networking has failed to provide adequate security in today’s digital world. It works to an extent by delaying an attack. However, a bad actor will eventually penetrate your guarded walls with enough patience and skill.

If a large gate and walls guard your house, you would feel safe and fully protected inside. However, the perimeter protecting your home may be as large and thick as possible. There is still a chance that someone can climb the walls, access your front door, and enter your property. If a bad actor cannot even see your house, they cannot take the next step and try to breach your security.

Example: Security Scan Lynis

Lynis is an open-source security auditing tool designed to assess the security of Linux and Unix-based systems. Developed by CISOfy, Lynis performs comprehensive security scans by analyzing system configurations, checking for vulnerabilities, and recommending steps to improve overall security posture.

**Issue 3 – Dissolved perimeter caused by the changing environment**

The environment has changed with the introduction of the cloud, advanced BYOD, machine-to-machine connections, the rise in remote access, and phishing attacks. We have many internal devices and a variety of users, such as on-site contractors, that need to access network resources.

Corporate devices are also trending to move to the cloud, collocated facilities, and off-site to customer and partner locations. In addition, they are becoming more diversified with hybrid architectures.

These changes are causing major security problems with the fixed perimeter approach to networking and security. For example, with the cloud, the internal perimeter is stretched to the cloud, but traditional security mechanisms are still being used. But it is an entirely new paradigm. Also, some abundant remote workers work from various devices and places.

Again, traditional security mechanisms are still being used. As our environment evolves, security tools and architectures must evolve. Let’s face it: the network perimeter has dissolved as your remote users, things, services, applications, and data are everywhere. In addition, as the world moves to the cloud, mobile, and IoT, the ability to control and secure everything in the network is no longer available.

Phishing attacks are on the rise.

We have witnessed increased phishing attacks that can result in a bad actor landing on your local area network (LAN). Phishing is a type of social engineering where an attacker sends a fraudulent message designed to trick a person into revealing sensitive information to the attacker or to deploy malicious software on the victim’s infrastructure, like ransomware. The term “phishing” was first used in 1994 when a group of teens worked to obtain credit card numbers from unsuspecting users on AOL manually.

Phishing attacks
Diagram: Phishing attacks. Source is helpnetsecurity

Hackers are inventing new ways.

By 1995, they had created a program called AOHell to automate their work. Since then, hackers have continued to invent new ways to gather details from anyone connected to the internet. These actors have created several programs and types of malicious software that are still used today.

Recently, I was a victim of a phishing email. Clicking and downloading the file is very easy if you are not educated about phishing attacks. In my case, the particular file was a .wav file. It looked safe, but it was not.

**Issue 4 – Broad-level access**

So, you may have heard of broad-level access and lateral movements. Remember, with traditional network and security mechanisms, when a bad actor lands on a particular segment, i.e., a VLAN, known as zone-based networking, they can see everything on that segment. So, this gives them broad-level access. But, generally speaking, when you are on a VLAN, you can see everything in that VLAN and VLAN-to-VLAN communication is not the hardest thing to do, resulting in lateral movements.

The issue of lateral movements

Lateral movement is the technique attackers use to progress through the organizational network after gaining initial access. Adversaries use lateral movement to identify target assets and sensitive data for their attack. Lateral movement is the tenth step in the MITRE Att&ck framework. It is the set of techniques attackers use to move in the network while gaining access to credentials without being detected.

No intra-VLAN filtering

This is made possible as, traditionally, a security device does not filter this low down on the network, i.e., inside of the VLAN, known as intra-VLAN filtering. A phishing email can easily lead the bad actor to the LAN with broad-level access and the capability to move laterally throughout the network. 

For example, a bad actor can initially access an unpatched central file-sharing server; they move laterally between segments to the web developers’ machines and use a keylogger to get the credentials to access critical information on the all-important database servers.

They can then carry out data exfiltration with DNS or even a social media account like Twitter. However, firewalls generally do not check DNS as a file transfer mechanism, so data exfiltration using DNS will often go unnoticed. 

With a zero-trust network segmentation approach, networks are segmented into smaller islands with specific workloads. In addition, each segment has its own ingress and egress controls to minimize the “blast radius” of unauthorized access to data.

Example: Segmentation with Network Endpoint Groups (NEGs)

network endpoint groups

**Issue 5 – The challenges with traditional firewalls**

The limited world of 5-tuple

Traditional firewalls typically control access to network resources based on source IP addresses. This creates the fundamental challenge of securing admission. Namely, we need to solve the user access problem, but we only have the tools to control access based on IP addresses.

As a result, you have to group users, some of whom may work in different departments and roles, to access the same service and with the same IP addresses. The firewall rules are also static and don’t change dynamically based on levels of trust on a given device. They provide only network information.

Maybe the user moves to a more risky location, such as an Internet cafe, its local Firewall, or antivirus software that has been turned off by malware or even by accident. Unfortunately, a traditional firewall cannot detect this and live in the little world of the 5-tuple.  Traditional firewalls can only express static rule sets and not communicate or enforce rules based on identity information.

TCP 5 Tuple
Diagram: TCP 5 Tuple. Source is packet-foo.

**Issue 6 – A Cloud-focused environment**

Upon examining the cloud, let’s compare a public parking space. A public cloud is where you can put your car compared to your vehicle in your parking garage. We have multiple tenants who can take your area in a public parking space, but we don’t know what they can do to your car.

Today, we are very cloud-focused, but when moving applications to the cloud, we need to be very security-focused. However, the cloud environment is less mature in providing the traditional security control we use in our legacy environment. 

So, when putting applications in the cloud, you shouldn’t leave security to its default. Why? Firstly, we operate in a shared model where the tenant after you can steal your encryption keys or data. There have been many cloud breaches. We have firewalls with static rulesets, authentication, and key management issues in cloud protection.

**Control point change**

One of the biggest problems is that the perimeter has moved when you move to a cloud-based application. Servers are no longer under your control. Mobile and tablets exacerbate the problem as they can be located everywhere. So, trying to control the perimeter is very difficult. More importantly, firewalls only have access to and control network information and should have more content.

This perimeter is defined by ZTNA architecture and software-defined perimeter. Cloud users now manage firewalls by moving their applications to the cloud, not the I.T. teams within the cloud providers.

So when moving applications to the cloud, even though cloud providers provide security tools, the cloud consumer has to integrate security to have more visibility than they have today.

Before, we had clear network demarcation points set by a central physical firewall creating inside and outside trust zones. Anything outside was considered hostile, and anything on the inside was deemed trusted.

1. Connection-centric model

The Zero Trust model flips this around and considers everything untrusted. To do this, there are no longer pre-defined fixed network demarcation points. Instead, the network perimeter initially set in stone is now fluid and software-based.

Zero Trust is connection-centric, not network-centric. Each user on a specific device connected to the network gets an individualized connection to a particular service hidden by the perimeter.

Instead of having one perimeter every user uses, SDP creates many small perimeters purposely built for users and applications. These are known as micro perimeters. Clients are cryptographically signed into these microperimeters.

2. Micro perimeters: Zero trust network segmentation

The micro perimeter is based on user and device context and can dynamically adjust to environmental changes. So, as a user moves to different locations or devices, the Zero Trust architecture can detect this and set the appropriate security controls based on the new context.

The data center is no longer the center of the universe. Instead, the user on specific devices, along with their service requests, is the new center of the universe.

Zero Trust does this by decoupling the user and device from the network. The data plane is separated from the network to remove the user from the control plane, where the authentication happens first.

Then, the data plane, the client-to-application connection, transfers the data. Therefore, the users don’t need to be on the network to gain application access. As a result, they have the least privilege and no broad-level access.

3. Zero trust network segmentation

Zero-trust network segmentation is gaining traction in cybersecurity because it increases an organization’s network protection. This method of securing networks is based on the concept of “never trust, always verify,” meaning that all traffic must be authenticated and authorized before it can access the network.

This is accomplished by segmenting the network into multiple isolated zones accessible only through specific access points, which are carefully monitored and controlled.

Network segmentation is a critical component of a zero-trust network design. By dividing the network into smaller, isolated units, it is easier to monitor and control access to the network. Additionally, segmentation makes it harder for attackers to move laterally across the network, reducing the chance of a successful attack.

Zero-trust network design segmentation is essential to any organization’s cybersecurity strategy. By utilizing segmentation, authentication, and monitoring systems, organizations can ensure their networks are secure and their data is protected.

4. The I.P. address conundrum

Everything today relies on IP addresses for trust, but there is a problem: IP addresses lack user knowledge to assign and validate the device’s trust. There is no way for an IP address to do this. IP addresses provide connectivity but do not involve validating the trust of the endpoint or the user.

Also, I.P. addresses should not be used as an anchor for network locations as they are today because when a user moves from one place to another, the I.P. address changes. 

Can’t have security related to an I.P. address.

But what about the security policy assigned to the old IP addresses? What happens with your changed IPs? Anything tied to IP is ridiculous, as we don’t have a good hook to hang things on for security policy enforcement. There are several facets to policy. For example, the user access policy touches on authorization, the network access policy touches on what to connect to, and the user account policies touch on authentication.

With either one, there is no policy visibility with I.P. addresses. This is also a significant problem for traditional firewalling, which displays static configurations; for example, a stationary design may state that this particular source can reach this destination using this port number. 

**Security-related issues to I.P.**

  1. This has no meaning. There is no indication of why that rule exists or under what conditions a packet should be allowed to travel from one source to another.
  2. No contextual information is taken into consideration. When creating a robust security posture, we must consider more than ports and IP addresses.

For a robust security posture, you need complete visibility into the network to see who, what, when, and how they connect with the device. Unfortunately, today’s Firewall is static and only contains information about the network.

On the other hand, Zero Trust enables a dynamic firewall with the user and device context to open a firewall for a single secure connection. The Firewall remains closed at all other times, creating a ‘black cloud’ stance regardless of whether the connections are made to the cloud or on-premise. 

The rise of the next-generation firewall?

Next-generation firewalls are more advanced than traditional firewalls. They use the information in layers 5 through 7 (session, presentation, and application layers) to perform additional functions. They can provide advanced features such as intrusion detection, prevention, and virtual private networks.

Today, most enterprise firewalls are “next generation” and typically include IDS/IPS, traffic analysis and malware detection for threat detection, URL filtering, and some degree of application awareness/control.

Like the NAC market segment, vendors in this area began a journey to identity-centric security around the same time Zero Trust ideas began percolating through the industry. Today, many NGFW vendors offer Zero Trust capabilities, but many operate with the perimeter security model.

Still, IP-based security systems

NGFWs are still IP-based systems offering limited identity and application-centric capabilities. In addition, they are static firewalls. Most do not employ zero-trust segmentation, and they often mandate traditional perimeter-centric network architectures with site-to-site connections and don’t offer flexible network segmentation capabilities. Similar to conventional firewalls, their access policy models are typically coarse-grained, providing users with broader network access than what is strictly necessary.

Example: Tags and Controls with firewalling

Firewall tags

Summary: Zero Trust Network Design

Traditional network security measures are no longer sufficient in today’s digital landscape, where cyber threats are becoming increasingly sophisticated. Enter zero trust network design, a revolutionary approach that challenges the traditional perimeter-based security model. In this blog post, we will delve into the concept of zero-trust network design, its key principles, benefits, and implementation strategies.

Understanding Zero Trust Network Design

Zero-trust network design is a security framework that operates on the principle of “never trust, always verify.” Unlike traditional perimeter-based security, which assumes trust within the network, zero-trust treats every user, device, or application as potentially malicious. This approach is based on the belief that trust should not be automatically granted but continuously verified, regardless of location or network access method.

Key Principles of Zero Trust

Certain key principles must be followed to implement zero trust network design effectively. These principles include:

1. Least Privilege: Users and devices are granted the minimum level of access required to perform their tasks, reducing the risk of unauthorized access or lateral movement within the network.

2. Microsegmentation: The network is divided into smaller segments or zones, allowing granular control over network traffic and limiting the impact of potential breaches or lateral movement.

3. Continuous Authentication: Authentication and authorization are not just one-time events but are verified throughout a user’s session, preventing unauthorized access even after initial login.

Benefits of Zero Trust Network Design

Implementing a zero-trust network design offers several significant benefits for organizations:

1. Enhanced Security: By adopting a zero-trust approach, organizations can significantly reduce the attack surface and mitigate the risk of data breaches or unauthorized access.

2. Improved Compliance: Zero trust network design aligns with many regulatory requirements, helping organizations meet compliance standards more effectively.

3. Greater Flexibility: Zero trust allows organizations to embrace modern workplace trends, such as remote work and cloud-based applications, without compromising security.

Implementing Zero Trust

Implementing a trust network design requires careful planning and a structured approach. Some key steps to consider are:

1. Network Assessment: Conduct a thorough assessment of the existing network infrastructure, identifying potential vulnerabilities or areas that require improvement.

2. Policy Development: Define comprehensive security policies that align with zero trust principles, including access control, authentication mechanisms, and user/device monitoring.

3. Technology Adoption: Implement appropriate technologies and tools that support zero-trust network design, such as network segmentation solutions, multifactor authentication, and continuous monitoring systems.

Conclusion:

Zero trust network design represents a paradigm shift in network security, challenging traditional notions of trust and adopting a more proactive and layered approach. By implementing the fundamental principles of zero trust, organizations can significantly enhance their security posture, reduce the risk of data breaches, and adapt to evolving threat landscapes. Embracing the principles of least privilege, microsegmentation, and continuous authentication, organizations can revolutionize their network security and stay one step ahead of cyber threats.

Zero trust security for full protection and data safety outline diagram. Labeled educational scheme with network, identity and device verification for safe information protection vector illustration.

Zero Trust: Single Packet Authorization | Passive authorization

Single Packet Authorization

In today's fast-paced world, where digital security is paramount, traditional authentication methods are often susceptible to malicious attacks. Single Packet Authorization (SPA) emerges as a powerful solution to enhance the security of networked systems. In this blog post, we will delve into the concept of SPA, its benefits, and how it revolutionizes network security.

Single Packet Authorization is a security technique that adds an extra layer of protection to your network. Unlike traditional methods that rely on passwords or encryption keys, SPA operates on the principle of allowing access to a specific service or resource based on the successful authorization of a single packet. This approach significantly reduces the attack surface and enhances security.

To grasp the inner workings of SPA, it is essential to understand the handshake process. When a connection attempt is made, the server sends a challenge to the client. The client, in turn, must construct a valid response packet using cryptographic algorithms. This response is then verified by the server, granting access if successful. This one-time authorization greatly reduces the chances of unauthorized access and brute-force attacks.

1. Enhanced Security: SPA adds an additional layer of security by limiting access to authorized users only. This reduces the risk of unauthorized access and potential data breaches.

2. Minimal Attack Surface: Unlike traditional authentication methods, which involve multiple packets and handshakes, SPA relies on a single packet. This significantly reduces the attack surface and improves overall security posture.

3. Protection Against DDoS Attacks: SPA can act as a deterrent against Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks. By requiring successful authorization before granting access, SPA mitigates the risk of overwhelming the network with malicious traffic.

Implementing SPA can be done through various tools and software solutions available in the market. It is crucial to choose a solution that aligns with your specific requirements and infrastructure. Some popular SPA implementations include fwknop, SPAProxy, and PortSentry. These tools offer flexibility, customization, and ease of integration into existing systems.

Highlights: Single Packet Authorization

1) SPA is a security technique that allows secure access to a protected resource by requiring the sender to authenticate themselves through a single packet. Unlike traditional methods that rely on complex authentication processes, SPA simplifies the process by utilizing cryptographic techniques and firewall rules.

2) Let’s explore SPA’s inner workings to better comprehend it. When an external party attempts to gain access to a protected resource, SPA requires them to send a specially crafted packet containing authentication credentials.

3) This packet is unique and can only be understood by the intended recipient. The recipient’s firewall analyzes this packet and grants access if the credentials are valid. This streamlined approach enhances security and reduces the risk of brute-force attacks and unauthorized access attempts.

Zero Trust Security 

Strong authentication and encryption suites are essential components of zero-trust network security. A zero-trust network assumes a hostile network environment. This book does not make specific recommendations about which suites provide strong security that will stand the test of time. However, you can use the NIST encryption guidelines to choose strong cipher suites based on security standards.

The types of suites system administrators can choose from may be limited by device and application capabilities. The security of these networks is compromised when administrators weaken these suites.

Authentication MUST be performed on all network flows.

Zero-trust networks immediately suspect all packets. Before their data can be processed, they must be rigorously examined. As a primary means of accomplishing this, we rely on authentication. For network data to be trusted, its provenance must be authenticated. Without it, zero-trust networks are impossible. We would need to trust it if the network weren’t possible.

Example: Port Knocking

**Understanding Zero Trust Port Knocking**

Zero trust port knocking is an advanced security mechanism that combines the principles of zero trust architecture with the traditional port knocking technique. Unlike conventional port knocking, which relies on a sequence of network connection attempts to open a port, zero trust port knocking requires authentication and verification at every step. This method ensures that only authorized users can access specific network resources, reducing the attack surface and enhancing overall security.

**How Zero Trust Port Knocking Works**

At its core, zero trust port knocking operates on the principle of “never trust, always verify.” Here’s a simplified breakdown of how it works:

1. **Pre-Knock Authentication**: Before any port knocking sequence begins, users must authenticate their identity using multi-factor authentication (MFA) or other verification methods.

2. **Dynamic Port Sequences**: Once authenticated, users initiate a sequence of port knocks. These sequences are dynamic and change periodically to prevent unauthorized access.

3. **Access Control Policies**: The system checks the user’s credentials and the knock sequence against predefined access control policies. Only valid combinations grant access to the requested resources.

4. **Logging and Monitoring**: All activities are logged and monitored in real-time, providing insights and alerts for suspicious behavior.

The Role of Authorization:

Authorization is arguably the most critical process in a zero-trust network, so an authorization decision should not be taken lightly. Ultimately, every flow and request will require a decision. For the authorization decision to be effective, enforcement must be in place. In most cases, it takes the form of a load balancer, a proxy, or a firewall. We use the policy engine to decide which interacts with this component.

The enforcement component ensures that clients are authenticated and passes context for each flow/request to the policy engine. By comparing the request and its context with policy, the policy engine informs the enforcer whether the request is permitted. As many enforcement components as possible should exist throughout the system and should be close to the workload.

Advantages of SPA in Achieving Zero Trust Security

To implement SPA effectively, several key components come into play. These include a client-side tool, a server-side daemon, and a firewall. Each element plays a crucial role in the authentication process, ensuring that only legitimate users gain access to the network resources.

– Enhanced Security: SPA acts as an additional layer of defense, significantly reducing the attack surface by keeping ports closed until authorized access is requested. This approach dramatically mitigates the risk of unauthorized access and potential security breaches.

– Stealthiness: SPA operates discreetly, making it challenging for potential attackers to detect the service’s existence. The closed ports appear as if they don’t exist, rendering them invisible to unauthorized entities.

– Scalability: SPA can be easily implemented across various services and devices, making it a versatile solution for achieving zero-trust security in various environments. Its flexibility allows organizations to adopt SPA within their infrastructure without significant disruptions.

– Protection against Network Scans: Traditional authentication methods are often vulnerable to network scans that attempt to identify open ports for potential attacks. SPA mitigates this risk by rendering the network invisible to scanning tools.

– DDoS Mitigation: SPA can effectively mitigate Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks by rejecting packets that do not adhere to the predefined authentication criteria. This helps safeguard the availability of network services.

**Reverse Security & Authenticity** 

Even though we are looking at disruptive technology to replace the virtual private network and offer secure segmentation, one thing to keep in mind with zero trust network design and software defined perimeter (SDP) is that it’s not based on entirely new protocols, such as the use of spa single packet authorization and single packet authentication. So we have reversed the idea of how TCP connects.

It started with authentication and then a connected approach, but traditional networking and protocols still play a large part. For example, we still use encryption to ensure only the receiver can read the data we send. We can, however, use encryption without authentication, which validates the sender.

**The importance of authenticity**

However, the two should go together to stand any chance in today’s world. Attackers can circumvent many firewalls and secure infrastructure. As a result, message authenticity is a must for zero trust, and without an authentication process, a bad actor could change, for example, the ciphertext without the reviewer ever knowing.

**Encryption and authentication**

Even though encryption and authenticity are often intertwined, their purposes are distinct. By encrypting your data, you ensure confidentiality-the promise that only the receiver can read it. Authentication aims to verify that the message was sent by what it claims to be. It is also interesting to note that authentication has another property.

Message authentication requires integrity, which is essential to validate the sender and ensure the message is unaltered. Encryption is possible without authentication, though this is a poor security practice.

Example Technology: Authentication with Vault

### Why Authentication Matters

Authentication is the gateway to security. Without a reliable authentication method, your secrets are as vulnerable as an unlocked door. Vault’s authentication ensures that clients prove their identity before accessing any secrets. This process minimizes the risk of unauthorized access and potential data breaches. Vault supports a myriad of authentication methods, from token-based to more complex identity-based systems, ensuring flexibility and security tailored to your needs.

### Exploring Vault’s Authentication Methods

Vault offers several authentication approaches to suit varied requirements:

1. **Token Authentication**: A simple method where clients are granted a token, acting as a key to access secrets. Tokens can be easily revoked, making them an ideal choice for temporary access needs.

2. **AppRole Authentication**: Designed for applications or machines, AppRole provides a role-based method where client applications authenticate using a combination of role ID and secret ID.

3. **Userpass Authentication**: A straightforward username and password method, suitable for human users needing access to Vault.

4. **LDAP, GitHub, and Cloud Auth**: Vault integrates seamlessly with existing enterprise systems like LDAP, GitHub, and various cloud providers, allowing users to authenticate using familiar credentials.

Each method comes with its own set of configuration options and use cases, allowing organizations to choose what best suits their security posture.

Vault

Related: Before you proceed, you may find the following post helpful:

  1. Identity Security
  2. Zero Trust Access
  •  

Single Packet Authorization

SPA: A Security Protocol

Single Packet Authorization (SPA) is a security protocol allowing users to access a secure network without entering a password or other credentials. Instead, it is an authentication protocol that uses a single packet—an encrypted packet of data—to convey a user’s identity and request access. This packet can be sent over any network protocol, such as TCP, UDP, or SCTP, and is typically sent as an additional layer of authentication beyond the network and application layers.

SPA works by having the user’s system send a single packet of encrypted data to the authentication server. The authentication server then uses a unique algorithm to decode the packet containing the user’s identity and request for access. If the authentication is successful, the server will send a response packet that grants access to the user.

SPA is a secure and efficient way to authenticate and authorize users. It eliminates the need for multiple authentication methods and sensitive data storage. SPA is also more secure than traditional authentication methods, as the encryption used in SPA is often more secure than passwords or other credentials.

Additionally, since the packet sent is encrypted, it cannot be intercepted and decoded, making it an even more secure form of authentication.

single packet authorization

**The Mechanics of SPA**

SPA operates by employing a shared secret between the client and server. When a client wishes to access a service, it generates a packet containing a specific data sequence, including a timestamp, payload, and cryptographic hash. The server, equipped with the shared secret, checks the received packet against its calculations. The server grants access to the requested service if the packet is authentic.

Implementing SPA:

Implementing SPA requires deploying specialized software or hardware components that support the single packet authorization protocol. Several open-source and commercial solutions are available, making it feasible for organizations of all sizes to adopt this innovative security technique.

Back to Basics: Zero Trust

Five fundamental assertions make up a zero-trust network:

  • Networks are always assumed to be hostile.
  • The network is always at risk from external and internal threats.
  • To determine trust in a network, locality alone is not sufficient.
  • A network flow, device, or user must be authenticated and authorized.
  • Policies must be dynamic and derived from as many data sources as possible to be effective.

Different networks are divided into firewall-protected zones in a traditional network security architecture. Each zone is permitted to access network resources based on its level of trust. This model provides a solid defense in depth. In DMZs, traffic can be tightly monitored and controlled over riskier resources, like those facing the public internet.

Perimeter Defense

a) Perimeter defenses protecting your network are less secure than you might think. Hosts behind the firewall have no protection, so when a host in the “trusted” zone is breached, which is just a matter of time, access to your data center can be breached. The zero-trust movement strives to solve the inherent problems of placing our faith in the network.

b) Instead, it is possible to secure network communication and access so effectively that the physical security of the transport layer can be reasonably disregarded.

c) Typically, we examine the remote system’s IP address and ask for a password. Unfortunately, these strategies alone are insufficient for a zero-trust network, where attackers can communicate from any IP and insert themselves between themselves and a trusted remote host.

d) Therefore, utilizing strong authentication on every flow in a zero-trust network is vital. The most widely accepted method is a standard named X.509.

zero trust security
Diagram: Zero trust security. Authenticate first and then connect.

A key aspect of zero-trust network ZTN and zero-trust principles is authenticating and authorizing network traffic, i.e., the flows between the requesting resource and the intended service. Simply securing communications between two endpoints is not enough. Security pros must ensure that each flow is authorized.

This can be done by implementing a combination of security technologies such as Single Packet Authorization (SPA), Mutual Transport Layer Security (MTLS), Internet Key Exchange (IKE), and IP security (IPsec).

IPsec can use a unique security association (SA) per application; only authorized flows can construct security policies. While IPsec is considered to operate at Layer 3 or 4 in the open systems interconnection (OSI) model, application-level authorization can be carried out with X.509 or an access token.

Mutually authenticated TLS (MTLS)

Mutually authenticated TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a system of cryptographic protocols used to establish secure communications over the Internet. It guarantees that the client and the server are who they claim to be, ensuring secure communications between them. This authentication is accomplished through digital certificates and public-private key pairs.

Mutually authenticated TLS is also essential for preventing man-in-the-middle attacks, where a malicious actor can intercept and modify traffic between the client and server. Without mutually authenticated TLS, an attacker could masquerade as the server and thus gain access to sensitive data.

Setting Up MTLS

To set up mutually authenticated TLS, the client and server must have digital certificates. The server certificate is used to authenticate the server to the client, while the client certificate is used to authenticate the client to the server. Both certificates are signed by the Certificate Authority (CA) and can be stored in the server and client’s browsers. The client and server then exchange the certificates to authenticate each other.

The client and server can securely communicate once the certificates have been exchanged and verified. Mutually authenticated TLS also provides encryption and integrity checks, ensuring the data is not tampered with in transit.

Enhanced Version of TLS

This enhanced version of TLS, known as mutually authenticated TLS (MTLS), is used to validate both ends of the connection. The most common TLS configuration is the validation, which ensures the client is connected to a trusted entity. However, the authentication doesn’t happen the other way around, so the remote entity communicates with a trusted client. This is the job of mutual TLS. As I said, mutual TLS goes one step further and authenticates the client.

The pre-authentication stage

You can’t attack what you cannot see. The mode that allows pre-authentication is Single Packet Authorization. UDP is the preferred base for pre-authentication because UDP packets, by default, do not receive a response. However, TCP and even ICMP can be used with the SPA. Single Packet Authorization is a next-generation passive authentication technology beyond what we previously had with port knocking, which uses closed ports to identify trusted users. SPA is a step up from port knocking.

Port-Knocking Scenario

The typical port-knocking scenario involves a port-knocking server configuring a packet filter to block all access to a service, such as the SSH service until a port-knocking client sends a specific port-knocking sequence. For instance, the server could require the client to send TCP SYN packets to the following ports in order: 23400 1001 2003 65501.

If the server monitors this knock sequence, the packet filter reconfigures to allow a connection from the originating IP address. However, port knocking has its limitations, which SPA addresses; SPA retains all of the benefits of port knocking but fixes the rules.

SPA & Port Knocking

As a next-generation Port Knocking (PK), SPA overcomes many limitations PK exhibits while retaining its core benefits. However, PK has several limitations, including difficulty protecting against replay attacks, the inability to reliably support asymmetric ciphers and HMAC schemes, and the fact that it is trivially easy to mount a DoS attack by spoofing an additional packet into a PK sequence while it is traversing the network (thereby convincing the PK server that the client does not know the proper sequence).

SPA solves all of these shortcomings. As part of SPA, services are hidden behind a default-drop firewall policy, SPA data is passively acquired (usually via libpcap), and standard cryptographic operations are implemented for SPA packet authentication and encryption/decryption.

Firewall Knock Operator

Fwknop (short for the “Firewall Knock Operator”) is a single-packet authorization system designed to be a secure and straightforward way to open up services on a host running an iptables- or ipfw-based firewall. It is a free, open-source application that uses the Single Packet Authorization (SPA) protocol to provide secure access to a network.

Fwknop sends a single SPA packet to the firewall containing an encrypted message with authorization information. The message is then decrypted and compared against a set of rules on the firewall. If the message matches the rules, the firewall will open access to the service specified in the packet.

No need to manually configure the firewall each time

Fwknop is an ideal solution for users who need to access services on a remote host without manually configuring the firewall each time. It is also a great way to add an extra layer of security to already open services.

To achieve strong concealment, fwknop implements the SPA authorization scheme. SPA requires only a single packet encrypted, non-replayable, and authenticated via an HMAC to communicate desired access to a service hidden behind a firewall in a default-drop filtering stance. The main application of SPA is to use a firewall to drop all attempts to connect to services such as SSH to make exploiting vulnerabilities (both 0-day and unpatched code) more difficult. Because there are no open ports, any service SPA hides cannot be scanned with, for example, NMAP.

Supported Firewalls:

The fwknop project supports four firewalls: Support iptables, firewall, PF, and ipfw across Linux, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, and Mac OS X. We also support custom scripts so that fwknop can be made to help other infrastructure, such as upset or nftables.

fwknop client user interface
Diagram: fwknop client user interface. Source mrash GitHub.

Example use case: SSHD protection

Users of Single Packet Authorization (SPA) or its less secure cousin, Port Knocking (PK), usually access SSHD running on the same system as the SPA/PK software. A SPA daemon temporarily permits access to a passively authenticated SPA client through a firewall configured to drop all incoming SSH connections. This is considered the primary SPA usage.

In addition to this primary use, fwknop also makes robust use of NAT (for iptables/firewalld firewalls). A firewall is usually deployed on a single host and acts as a gateway between networks. Firewalls that use NAT (at least for IPv4 communications) commonly provide Internet access to internal networks on RFC 1918 address space and access to internal services by external hosts.

Since fwknop integrates with NAT, users on the external Internet can access internal services through the firewall using SPA. Additionally, it allows fwknop to support cloud computing environments such as Amazon’s AWS, although it has many applications on traditional networks.

SPA Use Case
Diagram: SPA Use Case. Source mrash Github.

Single Packet Authorization and Single Packet Authentication

Single Packet Authorization (SPA) uses proven cryptographic techniques to make internet-facing servers invisible to unauthorized users. Only devices seeded with the cryptographic secret can generate a valid SPA packet and establish a network connection. This is how it reduces the attack surface and becomes invisible to hostile reconnaissance.

SPA Single Packet Authorization was invented over ten years ago and was commonly used for superuser SSH access to servers where it mitigates attacks by unauthorized users. The SPA process happens before the TLS connection, mitigating attacks targeted at the TLS ports.

As mentioned, SDP didn’t invent new protocols; it was more binding existing protocols. SPA used in SDP was based on RFC 4226 HMAC-based One-Time Password “HOTP.” It is another layer of security and is not a replacement for the security technologies mentioned at the start of the post.

Surveillance: The first step

The first step in an attack is reconnaissance, whereby an attacker is on the prowl to locate a target. This stage is easy and can be automated with tools such as NMAP. However, SPA ( and port knocking ) employs a default-drop stance that provides service only to those IP addresses that can prove their identity via a passive mechanism.

No TCP/IP stack access is required to authenticate remote IP addresses. Therefore, NMAP cannot tell that a server is running when protected with SPA, and whether the attacker has a zero-day exploit is irrelevant.

Process: Single Packet Authentication

The idea around SPA and Single Packet Authentication is that a single packet is sent, and based on that packet, an authentication process is carried out. The critical point is that nothing is listening on the service, so you have no open ports. For the SPA service to operate, there is nothing explicitly listening.

When the client sends an SPA packet, it will be rejected, but a second service identifies it in the IP stack and authenticates it. If the SPA packet is successfully authenticated, the server will open a port in the firewall, which could be based on Linux iptables, so that the client can establish a secure and encrypted connection with the intended service.

A simple Single Packet Authentication process flow

The SDP network gateway protects assets, and this component could be containerized and listened to for SPA packets. In the case of an open-source version of SDP, this could be fwknop, which is a widespread open-source SPA implementation. When a client wants to connect to a web server, it sends a SPA packet. When the requested service receives the SPA packet, it will open the door once the credentials are verified. However, the service still has not responded to the request.

When the fwknop services receive a valid SPA packet, the contents are decrypted for further inspection. The inspection reveals the protocol and port numbers to which the sender requests access. Next, the SDP gateway adds a rule to the firewall to establish a mutual TLS connection to the intended service. Once this mutual TLS connection is established, the SDP gateway removes the firewall rules, making the service invisible to the outside world.

single packet authorization
Diagram: Single Packet Authorization: The process flow.

Fwknop uses this information to open firewall rules, allowing the sender to communicate with that service on those ports. The firewall will only be opened for some time and can be configured by the administrator. Any attempts to connect to the service must know the SPA packet, and even if the packet can be recreated, the packet’s sequence number needs to be established before the connection. This is next to impossible, considering the sequence numbers are randomly generated.

Once the firewall rules are removed, let’s say after 1 minute, the initial MTLS session will not be affected as it is already established. However, other sessions requesting access to the service on those ports will be blocked. This permits only the sender of the IP address to be tightly coupled with the requested destination ports. It’s also possible for the sender to include a source port, enhancing security even further.

What can Single Packet Authorization offer

Let’s face it: robust security is hard to achieve. We all know that you can never be 100% secure. Just have a look at OpenSSH. Some of the most security-conscious developers developed OpenSSH, yet it occasionally contains exploitable vulnerabilities.

Even when you look at some attacks on TLS, we have already discussed the DigiNotar forgery in a previous post on zero-trust networking. Still, one that caused a significant issue was the THC-SSL-DOS attack, where a single host could take down a server by taking advantage of the asymmetry performance required by the TLS protocol.

Single Packet Authorization (SPA) overcomes many existing attacks and, combined with the enhancements of MTLS with pinned certificates, creates a robust security model addition; SPA defeats many a DDoS attack as only a limited amount of server performance is required to operate.

SPA provides the following security benefits to the SPA-protected asset:

    • SPA blackens the gateway and protects assets that sit behind the gateway. The gateway does not respond to connection attempts until it provides an authentic SPA. Essentially, all network resources are dark until security controls are passed.
    • SPA also mitigates DDoS attacks on TLS. TLS is likely publicly reachable online, and running the HTTPS protocol is highly susceptible to DDoS. SPA mitigates these attacks by allowing the SDP gateway to discard the TLS DoS attempt before entering the TLS handshake. As a result, there will be no exhaustion from targeting the TLS port.
    • SPA assists with attack detection. The first packet to an SDP gateway must be a SPA packet. If a gateway receives any other type of packet, it should be viewed and treated as an attack. Therefore, the SPA enables the SDP to identify an attack based on a malicious packet.

Summary: Single Packet Authorization

In this blog post, we explored the concept of SPA, its key features, benefits, and potential impact on enhancing network security.

Understanding Single Packet Authorization

At its core, SPA is a security technique that adds an additional layer of protection to network systems. Unlike traditional methods that rely on usernames and passwords, SPA utilizes a single packet sent to the server to grant access. This packet contains encrypted data and specific authorization codes, ensuring that only authorized users can gain entry.

The Key Features of SPA

One of the standout features of SPA is its simplicity. Using a single packet simplifies the process and minimizes the potential attack surface. SPA also offers enhanced security through its encryption and strict authorization codes, making it difficult for unauthorized individuals to gain access. Furthermore, SPA is highly customizable, allowing organizations to tailor the authorization process to their needs.

Benefits of Single Packet Authorization

Implementing SPA brings several notable benefits to the table. Firstly, SPA effectively mitigates the risk of brute-force attacks by eliminating the need for traditional login credentials. Additionally, SPA enhances security without sacrificing usability, as users only need to send a single packet to gain access. This streamlined approach saves time and reduces the likelihood of human error. Lastly, SPA provides detailed audit logs, allowing organizations to monitor and track authorized access more effectively.

Potential Impact on Network Security

The adoption of SPA has the potential to revolutionize network security. By leveraging this technique, organizations can significantly reduce the risk of unauthorized access, data breaches, and other cybersecurity threats. SPA’s unique approach challenges traditional authentication methods and offers a more robust and efficient alternative.

Conclusion:

Single Packet Authorization (SPA) is a powerful security technique with immense potential to bolster network security. With its simplicity, enhanced protection, and numerous benefits, SPA offers a promising solution for organizations seeking to safeguard their digital assets. By embracing SPA, they can take a proactive stance against cyber threats and build a more secure digital landscape.